【语法专项讲解】

 一、不定冠词a /an

  不定冠词有a和an两种形式，用于可数名词前。

  a用在以辅音开头的可数名词前，an用在以元音开头的可数名词前，如:a house ;a tree; an egg; an hour.

 二、可数名词和不可数名词

  英语中的名词可分为可数名词和不可数名词,可数名词指我们可以数的东西,不可数名词指我们不能数的东西。  

  ◆可数名词可分为单数和复数。指一个人或物时，用名词的单数形式，表示两个以上时，则用复数形式。

  ①规则名词的复数变化

  大多数在词尾加s,如：book-books bag-bags

  以字母s, x, ch, sh,结尾的名词后加es,如：bus-buses  watch-watches

  以字母y结尾的名词，如y 前面是辅音字母，要把y变成i再加es,如baby-babies; family-families

  以字母f, fe结尾的名词，把f或fe 改成 v，再加es，如wife-wives；knife-knives

  以字母o结尾的名词, 有的加es，有的加s， 如：mango—mangoes； radio-radios

  ②不规则变化的名词复数形式需要逐个记忆，如man-men；child-children；foot-feet；sheep-sheep；tooth-teeth

  ③复合名词的复数形式

  复合名词构成复数时通常将主体名词变成复数，如：apple tree- apple trees; boy student- boy students; 有时将两部分名词都变成复数，如：woman doctor- women doctors; man cook- men cooks

  ◆不可数名词通常表示不能记数的物，如meat, rice, bread, milk等。它们通常只有一种形式，没有单复数的变化，可以用some, much, a lot of等词或词组修饰表示数量的多少，也可用一个适当的词或词组表示具体的数量，如：a cup of water; a piece of bread

 三、介词

  介词常放在名词或代词的前面，表示不同的意义，主要用于表示方位、地点、时间等。

  1.表示方位的介词

  in   in the cinema      in the street         in the fridge 

  in the world            in the middle (of …)      

  in front of…           in the east/west/south/north (of…)

  at   at home         at the door      at the bus stop 

  at school           at /in the back of….

  on  on the plate     on the desk      on the wall    on the floor 

  on the right/left (of…)   on one’s way (to…)   on the other side (of…)

  near     near our house               near the hospital

  under    under the tree                under the water

  behind   behind the door               behind his uncle

  beside   beside the window             beside them

  between  between the two buildings      between the shop and the library

  2. 表示时间的介词

  in   in the morning /afternoon/evening/night      in July

  in 2001         in ten minutes

  at   at eight         at lunch      at night

  at the weekend    at noon

  on  on Sunday       on Saturday morning

  on August 5      on weekdays 

  on a cold night

  3. 固定介词词组搭配

  look at                  be late for           be good at 

  help sb. with            worry about           in time 

  at the moment            on time               by the way   

  on foot                  listen to             by car/bus/bike      

  由介词构成的介词短语在句中有以下几种作用：

  （1）作定语：The woman in red is Jim’s friend.

  （2）作表语：Our teacher is at the gate.

  （3）作状语：He’s doing his homework with his classmate.

 四、代词

1. 人称代词

  人称代词的主格在句中作主语，如：

  I like apples.

  He is our teacher. 

  人称代词的宾格在动词或介词后面作宾语，如：

  Do you know him?

  Jim will go with you.

2. 物主代词

  形容词性物主代词在句中起形容词的作用，与名词连用，如：

  Her father is forty years old. 

  Their teacher is in the office.

  名词性物主代词在句中起名词的作用，后面不再加名词，如：

  This is his coat, mine is on the desk.

  Whose car is it? It’s ours.  

3. Object form of personal pronouns人称代词的宾格

反身代词

  用来表示“我自己”、“你自己”、“他/她/它自己”“ 我们自己”、“你们自己”、“他们自己”的代词叫反身代词。反身代词在句中可以做宾语、主语或宾语的同位语，也可以做介词补足成分。

  They enjoyed themselves at the party yesterday.  (做宾语)

  I will do the work myself.  (做宾语的同位语)

  He himself told me the news. 他亲自告诉了我这个消息。 （做主语的同位语）

  She was worried about herself, not about him.  (做介词补足成分)

 五、副词

  1. 频度副词 Adverbs of frequency:

  never 从不              seldom 很少              sometimes 有时

  often 经常              usually通常             always总是

  频度副词告诉你事情每隔多久发生一次。

  He is never late for school.他上学从不迟到。

  My father sometimes goes to work by bus.我父亲有时乘公交车上班。

  They often play badminton after school.他们放学后经常打羽毛球。

  She usually has lunch at home.她通常在家吃午饭。

  We always help each other. 我们总是互相帮助。

  2. 方式副词：

  1)方式副词的构成：

  ① 大多数副词是在形容词词尾＋ly      bad ---- badly   polite ---- politely

  ② 以le结尾的形容词去e加y           gentle ---- gently

  ③ 以y结尾的副词将y改为i＋ly        noisy ---- noisily

  ④ 某些不规则形容词与副词相同　　　  early ---- early

  ⑤ 某些不规则形容词与副词完全不同　  good ---- well

  2)方式副词常位于行为动词之后，用以修饰动词，为某些发生的事情提供更多的信息；也可以用方式副词来回答how的问题。

  She speaks fluent English. She speaks English fluently.

  她说一口流利的英语。她说英语很流利。

  How does Simon swim? He swims well. 

  西蒙游泳游得如何？他游得很好。

  Birds are flying in the park happily.

  鸟儿在公园里快乐地飞翔。

  Make sure you can see clearly from your bird watching place.

  确信你能从观察野鸟的地方清楚地看见。

 六、并列连词 and, but, or

  and 连接相似的内容：but 连接相反的内容； or连接选择的内容。 它们可连接句子、并列谓语或并列的其它成分。

  I help him and he helps me.

  We saw the tower and liked it very much.

  He can speak English and Japanese.

  She likes dancing but she doesn’t like singing.

  I have a son but not a daughter.

  Do you have milk or orange?

  You may write to me or telephone me.

  注意：当or 连接两个主语时，谓语动词的单复数形式与or后面的主语相一致。

  Either you or I am right.

  James or Helen is going to tell us a story.

 七、表示原因的连接词

  because, as, since 被称为表示原因的连接词， 它们被用来介绍某个事情的原因，它们可以放在句首也可以位于句中。

  ◆because 引导的原因状语从句一般用于句中，用逗号与主句隔开，表示原因的语气较强；常用来回答why 提出的问题。

  The traffic was very bad because there was a snowstorm.

  ◆as 引导的原因状语从句，常用在句子开头，表示‘由于……’, 语气是三个词中最弱的。

  As it was really snowy, it took me longer time to get to school.

  ◆since引导的原因状语从句, 也常用在句子开头。指的是‘已知’的原因，相当于as引导的原因状语从句，但语气比as 强一点，比because弱一点。

  Since we are good friends, Millie invited me to her birthday party.

 八、句子

  1. 句子成分：

  ①Subject（主语）：一般由名词（相当于名词的词、短语或从句）、代词等充当。在主动语态中，表示“谁或什么”做出动作，主语是动作的执行者；在被动语态中，表示“谁或什么”受到动作的影响，主语是动作的承受者。

  Sandy has bought a Hello Kitty purse for Millie.

  We want children to be healthier.

  This song was written by Jay Zhou.

  ②Predicate（谓语）：一般位于主语之后，由动词或动词短语构成，说明主语“做什么，是什么或怎么样”。谓语和主语在“人称”和“数”两方面必须一致。

  Many people donated to Project Hope.

  Millie is reading an article about the 12 star signs.

  ③Predicative（表语）：说明主语的性质、特征、身份等，一般由名词、形容词、介词短语等充当。

  Paul is generous and very imaginative.

  His cousin is a driver.

  They were at home last night.

  ④Object（direct or indirect） 宾语（直接宾语或间接宾语）：一般位于及物动词之后，表示动作、行为的对象。由名词、代词等充当，和及物动词一起说明主语做什么。宾语又可分为直接宾语和间接宾语，直接宾语指“物”，间接宾语指“人”。

  My sister answered the phone.

  Peter has learned to speak English.

  They will give him a football.

  ⑤Attributive（定语）: 用来修饰名词或代词，起限定作用，通常由形容词、代词、数词、名词、介词短语、从句等来表示。

  It was a rainy, windy day.

  Is there anything important to discuss at the meeting? 会上有什么重要事情讨论吗?

  It’s a cotton shirt.

  ⑥Adverbial（状语）：用来修饰动词、形容词或副词，一般表示行为发生的时间、地点、目的、方式、程度等，通常由副词、介词短语、从句等来表示。

  He left his hometown in 1977.

  I met my friend on the bus yesterday.

  He understands us very well.

  2. 句子种类

  我们通常使用的句子可以分为四种：陈述句（肯定句和否定句）、疑问句（一般疑问句和特殊疑问句）、祈使句、感叹句。陈述句常用来提供信息；疑问句用来咨询信息或要求知道某件事情；祈使句用于提出命令或要求；感叹句用于表达一种强烈的感情。

  ①It’s a sunny day.     今天是晴天。 （一种简单的陈述）

  ②Mr. Wu isn’t at home today. 吴老师今天不在家。（也是一种简单的陈述）

  ③Are the children playing games? 孩子们在玩游戏吗？（在向别人咨询信息）

  ④Where is the nearest police station, please?  请问，最近的警察局在哪里？（请别人告知某事）

  ⑤Don’t put the glass here. Please put it over there.  不要把杯子放在这儿。请把它放那儿。（发出命令）

  ⑥What a lovely kite!   这个风筝多可爱呀!（发出感叹，表示很喜欢）

  3. 五种句子结构

  在英语中，句子通常可归纳为以下五种基本结构：

  ①主语+谓语 （S + V ） She laughed.

  ②主语+谓语+宾语 ( S + V+ DO )   He bought a T-shirt.

  ③主语+系动词+表语  (S + V + P )   It sounds great.

  ④主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语 ( S + V + DO + OC )    I find her smart.

  ⑤主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语 (S + V + IO + DO)   Millie calls her dog Eddie.

  遇到长一点的句子，我们可以把各部分的修饰成分放到一边，试试把它简化成这5种基本句型。

  People who live in cold climates prefer to use warm colors to give their homes a warm and comfortable feel.

  4. 反意疑问句

  反意疑问句一般由陈述句和附加疑问部分两部分组成，对陈述句所说的事实或观点提出疑问，附加疑问部分由be动词、情态动词或助动词加主语构成，答语一般用yes或 no。如果陈述句是肯定结构，附加疑问部分即用否定结构，反之，陈述句是否定结构，附加疑问部分则用肯定结构。如：

  He is thirteen, isn’t he?

  The students won’t come, will they?

  There aren’t any cars, are there?

  They can drive a car, can’t they?

  She often gives you piano lessons, doesn’t she?

  若反意疑问句陈述部分含有表示否定意义的词如little, few, never, hardly等，附加疑问部分仍用肯定结构。如：

  There is little water in the river, is there?

  He is never late for school, is he?

  对前否后肯的反意疑问句和否定疑问句作回答时，千万不能受汉语的影响，只要回答是肯定的就用yes, 回答是否定的就用no。如：

  —He isn’t a doctor, is he?

  — Yes, he is. （不，他是医生） 

  —No, he isn’t.(是的，他不是医生)

 九、一般现在时

  一般现在时表示经常发生的习惯性动作。动词用原形,若主语是第三人称单数时，动词后面加-s,加-s 的规则为：

  1. 一般动词在词尾加-s, 如：take-takes; bring-brings; work-works

  2. 以s, sh, ch, x,o结尾的词加-es, 如：pass-passes; wash-washes; fix-fixes; go-goes

  3. 以辅音字母加y结尾的词将y改为i，再加 es. 如：study-studies; carry-carries

  行为动词一般现在时的否定形式是在主语后面加don’t 或doesn’t (主语是第三人称单数时用doesn’t)，疑问形式是在主语前面加Do 或Does (主语是第三人称单数时用Does)。

  I play the violin on Sundays.

  My sister often goes swimming in summer.

  Does your teacher come to work by bus? Yes, he does.

  He doesn’t do any housework at home.

  Do they sometimes help the granny carry water?

 十、现在进行时

  现在进行时表示说话时或目前阶段正在进行的动作，在句中常出现now, listen, look等词，谓语动词用be动词加上动词的-ing形式（即动词的现在分词）。否定形式是在be后面加not，疑问形式是将be 移到主语前面。

  动词的现在分词的构成：

  （1）一般动词在词尾加-ing。如：buy-buying, ring-ringing

  （2）以不发音e结尾的，去e 加-ing. 如：make-making, live-living

  （3）以 ie 结尾的动词将ie 改成y再加-ing. 如：lie-lying, die-dying

  （4）以重读闭音节结尾的动词，且结尾只有一个辅音字母的，双写最后这个辅音字母，再加-ing. 如：put-putting, begin-beginning

  例句：

  They are getting on the bus now.

  Look, they are cleaning the desk.

  Are they reading English?

  Yes, they are./No, they aren’t.

  What are they doing? They are listening to the radio.

  Bob isn’t learning to draw these days.

 十一、一般将来时

  一般将来时表示将要发生的动作或情况，常与表示将来的时间状语连用， 如

  tomorrow, next week, the day after tomorrow, in a few day, etc.

  一般将来时的构成

  shall（用于第一人称I, we）/will/ be going to + 动词原形

  I shall/ will go to London next month.

  Will you be free tomorrow? No, I won’t.

  Shall we buy some bananas?

  be going to表示打算或计划要做某事，更强调主观意愿，也可表示根据某种迹象认为将要发生某事。

  We are going to hold a sports meeting next week.

  I’m afraid it’s going to rain soon.

  有些动词如go, come, leave, move, fly, arrive可用现在进行时表示将要发生的动作。

  Are you flying to Beijing? Yes, I am.

  His uncle is moving to Guangzhou.

  A：用一般现在时来谈论将来。

  用一般现在时表示将来时间，通常指按照时间表或既定日程一定会发生的将来的事情。

  Tomorrow is Saturday.

  The term starts on 23rd August. 学期于8月23日开始。

  The train leaves at 7:30 this evening.  火车今晚7：30离开。

  B：用现在进行时来谈论将来

  表示按计划安排近期内即将发生的动作，常用现在进行时表示。这就是现在进行时表示将来时间的用法。

  Mr. Green is leaving China in a few days. 格林先生几天后将离开中国。

  I’m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday. 　我将去青岛过暑假。

  What are we having for dinner tonight? 　今晚我们吃什么？

  注意：

  （1）用现在进行时表示将来时间，在句中或上下文中通常要有表示将来时间的状语或其他依据，否则意义会含糊不清；

  （2）表示将来时间，一般现在时和现在进行时都常与表示位置移动的动词连用，而且都有按计划安排的含义。但一般现在时所暗示的计划比较客观，因而更具有不可变易性，而且用一般现在时表示将来在口气上也比用现在进行时更为正式。

 十二、一般过去时

  ①be 的一般过去式am, is—was,  are—were, 表示过去的状态

  I was busy yesterday.

  Were you at home last Sunday?

  He wasn’t at school a moment ago.

  ②行为动词的一般过去时表示过去发生的动作。

  They went to Shanghai last week.

  疑问句Did they go to Shanghai last week?肯定回答Yes, they did. 否定回答No, they didn’t.

  否定句They didn’t go to shanghai last week.

  He forgot to tell Jim the news.

  Did he forget to tell Jim the news?

  He didn’t forget to tell Jim the news.

  ③动词的过去式构成

  一般的动词直接加ed.  work—worked    clean--cleaned

  以e结尾的加 d.  raise—raised  dance--danced

  以辅音字母加y 结尾的，y变i再加ed. study—studied  carry--carried

  重读闭音节末尾只有一个辅音字母的，双写最后一个字母再加ed 

  stop—stopped  prefer—preferred

  不规则动词的过去式要记忆。

 十三、过去进行时

  1. 过去进行时由was / were + 动词的现在分词构成。

  2. 它主要表示：在过去某一时刻正在进行的动作或发生的事，也可以表示过去某个阶段一直进行的动作。

  My mother was watching TV at 8:00 last night.  昨晚8点我妈妈正在看电视。

  What were you doing at this time yesterday? 

  昨天的这个时候你正在干什么？

  He was teaching in a primary school from 1995 to 1998. 

  从1995年到1998年，他一直在一所小学教书。

  3. 过去进行时的否定句，在was/were后加not，疑问句把was/were调到主语的前面。

  I wasn’t singing at that time   那时我不在唱歌。　

  Were they looking after their baby at 9:00 yesterday morning? Yes, they were / No, they weren’t .

  昨天上午9点他们正在照看孩子吗？是的/不在。

 十四、现在完成时

  现在完成时态常用来谈论过去发生的事情对现在产生的影响。也就是说某一个事情虽然发生在过去，但跟现在有关系。它由“have(has) + 动词的过去分词”构成。

  Eddie has lived with Millie since he was born. 

  Eddie自从出生以来就和Millie 住在一起。

  We have seen the film already. 我们已经看过这个电影了。

  现在完成时态的否定句是“have(has) not +动词的过去分词”。

  He has not visited Hong Kong.

  Mr. and Mrs. Li have not come back yet.

  现在完成时态的一般疑问句是把 have (has) 调到主语的前面。

  Have you heard the story? Yes, I have. /No, I haven’t. 

  你听过这个故事吗？ 听过/没听过。

  Has Daniel talked to his cousin? Yes, he has. / No. he hasn’t. 

  Daniel 和他的堂兄谈过了吗？ 谈过/没谈过 。

  ▲和现在完成时态连用的时间副词

  ①already “已经”，强调某事已经发生，常用与肯定陈述句中。

  He has seen the film already.

  ②ever  “曾经”，强调任何时间，用于疑问句中。

  Have you ever been to Hong Kong?

  ③for  强调时间的长度，后加一段时间，用于肯定句、疑问句和否定句中。

  You have not visited me for a long time.

  ④just  “刚刚”，强调某事最近发生，用于肯定陈述句中。

  Eddie has just eaten the food.

  ⑤never“从不”，用于否定句中。

  I have never read the story.

  ⑥since “自从…以来”，用于肯定句、疑问句和否定句中。

  My family has owned a tram since 1992.

  Eddie has lived with Millie since he was born.

  ⑦yet “还未、已经”，用于疑问句和否定句中。

  Mr. Li hasn’t come back yet.

  Have you called yet?

 十五、过去完成时

  过去完成时用来谈论在过去某个时间之前完成的动作。

  过去完成时态由 had + v+ed (动词的过去分词) 构成。

  Audrey had been a model before she became a Hollywood superstar.

  When I arrived at the station, the train had left.

  She had finished all her homework before she watched TV.

  过去完成时态的一般疑问句把had提到主语之前；否定句在had后加not。

  Had you seen any of her films before you saw this one?

  Yes, I had. / No, I hadn’t.

  The film hadn’t begun when he arrived at the cinema.

 十六、比较级和最高级

  1. 形容词的比较级和最高级：

  ①两种比较级，意思不一样。如：

  old (老的) ---- older (更老的) ---- oldest (最老的)

  old (老的) ---- elder (年长的) ---- eldest (最年长的)

  far (远的) ---- farther (更远的) ---- farthest (最远的)

  far (远的) ---- further (进一步的)---- furthest (最大程度的)

  ②使用比较级要注意范围。如：

  Tom is taller than any other student in his class.

  汤姆比他班任何同学都高。（汤姆也在这个班上，所以在any后面加other）

  Tom is taller than any student in his younger brother’s class.

  汤姆比他弟弟班上任何同学都高。（汤姆不在他弟弟班上，所以在any后面不加other）

  ③高级前面有时不用定冠词，但有时也用不定冠词。如：

  Vegetables are best when they are fresh. 蔬菜新鲜时候最好。（不强调与别的蔬菜相比）

  It is a most interesting story. 这是一个最有趣的故事。（表示“非常”的意思）

  2. 副词的比较级和最高级

  副词的比较级和最高级与形容词的比较级及最高级的构成方法相同，即单音节和部分双音节副词在词尾加“er”、加“est”构成比较级和最高级；多音节副词在副词之前加more和most 构成比较级和最高级；以后缀ly结尾的副词要用more和most。

  fast – faster – fastest

  early – earlier – earliest

  late – later – latest

  beautifully – more beautifully – most beautifully

  slowly – more slowly – most slowly

  quickly – more quickly – most quickly

  另外还有不规则副词的比较级和最高级：

  well – better – best

  badly – worse – worst

  much – more – most

  little – less – least

  far – farther – farthest

  Sandy runs faster than Amy.

  Daniel draws the most carefully in our class.

 十七、语态：

  主动语态和被动语态

  当我们强调谁是某个动作的执行者，即“谁做了某种事情”时，用主动语态。

  Daniel bought a new computer   丹尼尔买了一台新电脑。（不是别人）

  如果主语不是动作的执行者，而是动作的承受者时，就是被动语态。

  A new computer was bought by Daniel   一台新电脑被丹尼尔买了。

  一般现在时的被动语态由“am / is / are ＋动词的过去分词”构成。

  一般过去时的被动语态由“was / were ＋动词的过去分词”构成。

  被动语态的用法：

  当不知道或没必要说明动作的执行者时，用被动语态。

  Rice is grown in South China. 华南种植水稻。（没必要说明是谁种）

  This bridge was built 100 years ago.  这座桥是100年前建的。（不知道谁建的）

  被动语态中by的用法:

  在被动语态中，如果我们也要把动作的执行者表达出来的话，我们就在被动句子的后面，用 “by+动作的执行者（宾格）”来表示。

  Jack broke the window. （主动语态）

  The window was broken by Jack. （被动语态） 窗户是被杰克打碎的。

  Meals are cooked by her mother at home. 在家饭是她母亲烧的。

  The book was written by him several years ago. 这本书是他几年前写的。

  ▲难点：

  1)当一个含有复合宾语（宾语+宾补）的句子变为被动语态时， 只能把宾语变为被动语态的主语，宾补还放在原来的位置。

  We call him Xiao Wang.→He is called Xiao Wang.

  He cut his hair short.→His hair was cut short.

  2)带双宾语的动词变为被动语态时， 常常把间接宾语变为被动语态的主语；如果直接宾语变为被动语态的主语时，间接宾语前要加介词to或 for.

  Someone gave the boy an apple.→The boy was given an apple.

  An apple was given to the boy.

  His mother bought a present for him. →He was bought a present.

  A present was bought for him.

  3)在let, hear, watch, see, help, have 等词的句子中，主动语态不加to, 被动语态要加 to.

  The boss makes us work 12 hours a day. →We are made to work 12 hours a day.

  They heard the children sing that morning. →The children were heard to sing that morning.

 十八、直接引语和间接引语

  1. 不改变时态的间接引语。

  ①说话人在转述别人的话时，可以一字不改地加以引用，被引用的话在语法上叫做“直接引语”；说话人用自己的话来转述别人的话，可以对原话有所更改，这叫做“间接引语”。

  He said, “I am very busy.”

  He said that he was very busy.

  ②如果要转述的话是客观事实，自然现象或所述内容仍然是真的，则时态不需要变化，但代词可能需要变化。

  Dr Ma said, “I miss my family when I am away.”

  Dr Ma said that he misses his family when he is away.

  Mr. Wu told us, “The earth goes around the sun.”

  Mr. Wu said that the earth goes around the sun.

  ③一般情况下，直接引语转为间接引语时，如果主句的谓语动词是过去式，则间接引语中的动词应有相应的变化，人称代词也要变化。

  He said, “I am very nervous.”

  He said that he was very nervous.

  She said, “I can swim very well.”

  She said that she could swim very well.

  2. 改变时态的间接引语。

  ①我们由直接引语改为间接引语时，也就是用自己的语言来转述别人的话时，时态作如下改变：

  （直接引语）                   （间接引语）

  ①一般现在时     改为            一般过去时

  The witness said “I’m scared.”

  The witness said (that) he was scared.

  ②现在进行时     改为            过去进行时

  “I’m doing my homework,” said she.

  She said (that) she was doing her homework.

  ③现在完成时     改为            过去完成时

  Tom said, “I’ve received the letter.”

  Tom said (that) he had received the letter.

  ④一般过去时     改为            过去完成时

  “I didn’t see the cat,” said he.

  He said (that) he hadn’t seen the cat.

  ⑤一般将来时    改为             过去将来时 (would + v.)

  “We’ll look for more clues,” said Detective Lu.

  Detective Lu said (that) they would look for more clues.

  ▲由直接引语改为间接引语时，时间副词作如下改变：

  直接引语                 间接引语

  today                    that day

  tonight                  that night

  this morning / week      that morning / week

  tomorrow                 the next / following day

  yesterday                the day before

  last week                the last week

  now                      then

  two days ago             two days before

   “I was in another place at that time yesterday,” the suspect said.

  The suspect said that he had been in another place at that time the day before.

  ▲特殊疑问句改为间接引语时，①要把问号改为句号；②要把疑问句的顺序改为陈述句的顺序。

  “Why are you late?” the teacher asked him.

  The teacher asked him why he was late.

  “How many crimes have you solved?” the interviewer asked Detective Lu.

  The interviewer asked Detective Lu how many crimes he had solved.

  ▲一般疑问句改为间接引语时，①要把问号改为句号；②要在间接引语前加if / whether；③要把疑问句改为陈述句。

  “Can you finish it in time?” my mother asked.

  My mother asked if/whether I could finish it in time.

  “Does he know the victim?” I asked

  I asked if/ whether he knew the victim.

 十九、宾语补足语

  宾语补足语通常由名词（名词短语）、形容词（形容词短语）、介词短语、动词不定式、副词等构成，用于补充说明宾语的状态。

  I believe him honest.

  We think her the best student in our class.

  They call the baby Jack.

  The news made her happy.

  She preferred him to stay at home all day.

 二十、if 引导的条件状语从句: 

  ①谈论将来可能发生的情况。

  当主句是一般将来时，从句常用一般现在时表示将要发生的事。如：

  If we grow more bamboo, giant pandas will have more food.

  如果我们种更多的竹子，大熊猫就有更多的食物。

  If it doesn’t rain tomorrow, we’ll go camping. 

  假如明天不下雨，我们将去野营。

  If you are not careful, a car may hit you. 

  如果你不当心，汽车可能会撞到你。

  I’ll see some beautiful birds if I walk through a rainforest. 

  如果我步行穿过热带雨林就将看到一些美丽的鸟。

  ②用来谈论事实

  主句和从句都用一般现在时。如：

  If tigers are hungry, they attack people.  如果老虎饿了，就攻击人。

  Male wolves protect their families if there’s danger.

  假如有危险，雄狼就保护它们的全家。

  注意：当if引导的从句在前面，和后面的主句要用逗号隔开。但当if引导的从句在主句之后，则不需要逗号。

 二十一、宾语从句

  ①由“that”引导的宾语从句

  用一个句子来作一个动词的宾语，叫宾语从句。陈述句充当宾语从句时，用that引导，that不在从句中担任成份，只起连接作用，有时可省略。

  We all know （that） Earth is becoming more and more crowded and polluted.

  He said （that） he would help me with English.

  若主句的谓语动词是find, make, think 等，其后又带有复合宾语时，常用it作形式宾语，而把实际的宾语从句放在宾语补足语之后。

  Do you think it necessary that we’ll have a meeting tomorrow?

  ②由if / whether  引导的宾语从句

  当由一般疑问句充当宾语从句时，用if / whether引导，宾语从句语序是陈述句语序。

  I don’t know if / whether he will come tomorrow.

  We are wondering whether we can grow plants on Mars.

  注意：在动词wonder 后面的宾语从句常用 if / whether 引导。

 二十二、动词+不定式结构

  在英语中，有些动词后可以跟上一个不定式，即 ‘to’ + 动词原形，这个不定式在句中充当宾语。常用这种结构的动词有： agree, choose, decide, hope, plan, prepare, want 等。

  They decided to go on a trip next week.

  My father agreed to swim with me.

  We hope to visit the World Park again.

  He wants to sit in the front of the bus.

  She chose to stay at home because she had a cold.

  Lily learned to ride a bike when she was ten years old.

 二十三、疑问词+不定式

  有一些动词后面可以接疑问词how, what, when, where, which, who再加动词不定式，但是why没有这种用法。这类动词中最常用的有：ask, decide, discover, find out, forget, know, learn, remember, see, show+宾语，think, understand, want to know, wonder。如：

  He discovered how to open the safe.  他发现了打开保险柜的方法。

  I found out where to buy fruit cheaply.  我找到了买便宜水果的地方。

  I didn’t know when to switch the machine off. 我不知道什么时候关掉机器。

  I showed her which button to press.  我指点她应该按哪个按钮。

  She couldn’t think what to say.  她想不出说什么。

  我们也可以用宾语从句表达同样的意思，但是通常从句的主语必须与主句的主语或宾语相同，所以上述句子也可以用下面的句子表达。如：

  He discovered how he could open the safe.

  I found out where I could buy fruit cheaply.

  I didn’t know when I should switch the machine off.

  I showed her which button she should press.

  She couldn’t think what she could say.

 二十四、限定性定语从句

  限定性定语从句与其先行词之间不用逗号隔开, 如:

  This is one of the workers who will be praised next week.

  限定性定语从句与其先行词关系十分密切，如果去掉从句，剩余部分意义往往不完整，甚至失去意义。如:

  This is the place where he once worked ten years ago.

  限定性定主从句先译从句，后译先行词，将从句放在先行词前。如:

  I have a sister who works in a hospital.

  我有一个在医院工作的姐姐。

  限定性定语从句的先行词一般是单个的名词或者代词。如：

  My neighbor sold his house which/that lay in downtown.

  我邻居卖掉了位于市区的房子。

 二十五、交际运用

  1. 运用带to的不定式转述别人的命令，请求和建议。

  我们常用以下句型来转述别人的命令，请求和建议。

  tell sb. to do（ not to do） sth. 叫某人做（不要做）某事

  ask sb. to do（not to do） sth.  请某人做（不要做）某事

  advise sb. to do（not to do） sth.建议某人做（不要做）某事

  order/ warn sb. to do（not to do） sth. 命令（警告）某人做（不要做）某事

  He asked me to look after his baby.

  I told my parents to wake me up in the morning.

  Simon advised Daniel to wear a raincoat.

  Mr. Wu warned Kitty not to forget to lock the door.

  Millie advised Daniel not to run down the stairs.

  2. 用should, ought to, had better, have to, must 提出建议。

  ①当我们要用“和善”的方法提出建议时，用 should, ought to 和 had better。

  We should go and see Mary sometime.

  You ought to watch more Western films to improve your English.

  They had better arrive early so that they won’t miss anything.

  should/ ought to 表示“应该”，后跟动词原形。should 比ought to语气要轻一些，should谈的是自己的主观看法，而ought to则更多地反映客观情况。

  should的否定形式是should not; ought to 的否定形式是ought not to。

  had better表示“最好”，后跟动词原形，否定式是had better not do sth.

  You should not do that.

  Students ought not to be late for class.

  It’ s cold .You had better put on your coat.

  She had better not go out at night.

  ②当我们想用“更强硬”的态度提出建议时，用have to 和must.

  You have to stop smoking.

  You must buy a ticket to go into the cinema.

  have to / must 表示“必须”，后跟动词原形； have to 常表示客观要求，must则表示主观愿望。

  I have to finish my work on time. (外界要求我完成)

  I must finish my work on time. (自己想完成)

  have to 的否定式是 don’t have to, 表示“不必要”；must的否定式是must not, 表示“一定不能”、“不允许”。

  She doesn’t have to do all the homework.

  You mustn’t put your bike here. 

  3. 用 why not, why don’t you 和perhaps 来提建议。

  why not / why don’t you 后跟动词原形,也是提出建议的两种方式,表示“为什么不……”,两者可以互换。

  Why not go out for a walk?

  Why don’t you go out for a walk?

  Why not wear a T-shirt? =Why don’t you wear a T-shirt?

  perhaps 是提出建议的另一种方式，表示“或许，可能，也许”。

  Perhaps you should read the film review.

  4. 用can，could，may，might表示请求或给予许可。

  ①can 常用于口语中，表示非正式的请求，请求对象一般是朋友或家人。

  Can I use your computer?

  Can I watch TV, Mum?

  ②could  是can的过去式，但在口语中，could常代替can来向对方委婉地提出请求，比can正式，请求的对象一般是老师或成年人，这时could不表示过去时态，回答时一般用can或can’t。

  Could I ask a question, Mr. Li?

  Yes, you can. / No, you can’t.

  ③may 也可用来征求对方的意见，表示“可以”，相当于can，但比can更正式和礼貌，请求的对象一般是陌生人或你所尊敬的人。

  May I borrow this helmet?

  Yes, you may. / No, you may not.

  ④might  是may 的过去式，但它也可以用来征求对方的意见，比may、could更礼貌，但很少用。这时might不表示过去时态，回答用may。

  Might I speak to him now?

  Yes, you may. / No, you may not. / I’m afraid not.

  5. 用need to 来表示“必须做某事”。

  ①need 可以做实义动词，表示“必须”。

  它后面可接名词或代词。

  We need food, water and oxygen to survive.

  You can take it away. I don’t need it.

  它可接动词不定式做宾语，表示“必须做某事”。

  You need to do it yourself.

  Does he need to come here? Yes, he does.

  它可接不定式做宾补。

  I need you to help me.

  后接动词的ing 形式，表示被动的意思。

  My watch needs mending.

  Your room wants cleaning.

  Her mother needs looking after.

  ②need 做情态动词时，没有人称和数的变化，后接动词原形。主要用于否定句和疑问句中。

  You needn’t answer this question.

  Need he go home now? Yes, he must. /No, he needn’t.